Der Internist
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Upon hospitalization, up to 15.5% of patients are already colonized with a toxigenic Clostridium difficile strain (TCD). The rate of asymptomatic colonization is 0-3% in healthy adults and up to 20-40% in hospitalized patients. The incidence and mortality of C. difficile infection (CDI) has significantly increased during recent years. ⋯ An alternative is fecal microbiota transplant (FMT), with healing rates of more than 80%. Bezlotoxumab is the first available monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the C. difficile toxin B, and in combination with an antibiotic significantly reduces the rate of a new C. difficile infection compared to placebo. A better definition of clinical and microbiota-associated risk factors and the ongoing implementation of molecular diagnostics are likely to lead to optimized identification of patients at risk, and an increasing individualization of prophylactic and therapeutic approaches.
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Indications for anticoagulation are thromboembolic events, prosthetic heart valves, and atrial fibrillation with a corresponding risk score. Clinical trials have excluded patients with advanced chronic kidney disease and these data cannot be always generalized to patients with chronic kidney disease. Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs) are mostly not recommended or are contraindicated in advanced stages of chronic kidney disease. Observational studies have shown that dialysis patients with atrial fibrillation do not profit from coumarin anticoagulants; prospective studies are lacking.
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The human intestinal microbiome has important metabolic and immunological functions for the host and is part of the defense against pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract. Antibiotics, probiotics, dietary measures, such as prebiotics, and the relatively newly established method of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT, also known as fecal microbiome transfer) all influence the intestinal microbiome. The FMT procedure comprises the transmission of fecal microorganisms from a healthy donor into the gastrointestinal tract of a patient. ⋯ A careful donor selection is necessary. The implementation of FMT in Germany is subject to the Medicines Act (Arzneimittelgesetz, AMG) with a duty of disclosure and personal implementation by the attending physician. By documentation in a central register long-term effects and side effects of FMT have to be evaluated.
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Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a growing chronic disease with a complex pathophysiology and multiple therapeutic options. Clinical prognosis is determined by multimorbidity and cardiovascular complications. For example, the prognosis of patients with diabetes hospitalized for heart failure is very poor with up to 50% mortality rate over the 3 years thereafter. ⋯ In this context, it is interesting to note that new cardiovascular outcome trials with a so-called safety design have shown that the GLP-1 receptor agonist liraglutide and the SGLT-2 inhibitor empagliflozin can reduce cardiovascular event rates. In addition, empagliflozin has significantly reduced the rate of hospitalization for heart failure. The latter has been included in the recent guidelines on heart failure by the European Society of Cardiology.
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Hypercholesterolemias are known risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Although statins have reduced the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and further therapeutic measures are available, treatment goals are often not achieved. In cases of very high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or of intolerability, the established therapies are often not sufficiently effective or cannot be used in adequate doses. For these high-risk patients further treatment options are required. ⋯ The body of evidence is rapidly increasing thereby facilitating the decision making when PCSK9 inhibitors could be used. The PCSK9 inhibitors will considerably improve the options for optimal treatment of high-risk patients.