• H F Fraser, D C Kay, S Y Yeh, C W Gorodetzky, and W L Dewey.
• Drug Alcohol Depend. 1978 Sep 1;3(5):301-18.

AbstractWhen an opioid capable of forming active metabolites is administered, the total pharmacology is the result of interactions of the opioid and such metabolites, especially normetabolites. Normetabolites may affect the morphine-like characteristics of certain opioids and thus influence their reinforcement in animals and man. Most opioids, when administered in single doses, are positively reinforcing in addicts. Oral administration, as compared with parenteral, facilitates the formation of normetabolites. When chronically administered, many opioids, including acetylmethadol, meperidine, morphine, codeine, propoxyphene, and levorphanol, show evidence of a longer half-life for their normetabolites. Normetabolites may have aversive characteristics and thus impair positive reinforcement of the parent drug in animals and man. For example, addicts do not like chronic oral morphine or chronic oral codeine. Conversely, methadone, the normetabolites of which are inactive, is well accepted during chronic oral administration. Drugs which inhibit N-demethylation will increase the agonist potency of opioids having inactive normetabolites (e.g., methadone) but will decrease the agonist potency of opioids having more potent normetabolites than the parent (e.g., acetylmethadol). The divergent responses of addicts to single doses of opiates as compared with chronic doses indicate that chronic addiction tests in man are needed befored relative abuse liability can be predicted.

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