Rev Neuroscience
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Neurons and microglia are two major components in the central nervous system (CNS). The interactions between them play important roles in maintaining homeostasis of the brain. In recent years, substantial studies have focused on the interactions between neurons and microglia, revealing that microglia become reactive when the interactions are pathophysiologically interfered, usually accompanying neuronal injury, which is a common feature for Alzheimer's disease (AD). ⋯ Accumulating studies have revealed that in the CNS, cluster of differentiation-200 (CD200) and fractalkine (CX3CL1) expressed mainly on neurons and triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) expressed mainly on microglia. These molecules can mediate neuron-microglia interactions in a contact-dependent manner and contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. Here, we review the expression, distribution, and function of CD200, CX3CL1, and TREM2 in regulating neuron-microglia interactions under physiological conditions as well as in AD.
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A painful neuroma is a common complication of a peripheral nerve injury or amputation, and it can cause tremendous pain that is resistant to most analgesics. Furthermore, painful neuromas have a high postoperative recurrence rate. Painful neuromas are often accompanied by functional disorders, drastically reducing the patient's quality of life. ⋯ There are several effective treatment methods, although none are universally accepted. This review summarises the common mechanisms and treatments of painful neuromas, attempting to link the mechanisms and treatments. We hope to provide useful guidelines for choosing the appropriate treatment for the management of painful neuromas.
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Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is a neuropathic pain disorder that affects the trigeminal nerve distribution area. Pharmacological therapy has remained the first-line treatment for TN. If pharmacological intervention is not effective, surgical treatments including radiosurgery (mainly gamma knife therapy), radiofrequency (RF) of the Gasserian ganglion, and microvascular decompression have been utilized. ⋯ The pain relief rate in PRF-treated patients was significantly lower compared to CRF-treated patients. Furthermore, recurring pain was more commonly observed in PRF-treated patients. Therefore, CRF may be the preferred treatment option for TN, whereas treatment with PRF requires further study.
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Cholinergic signaling mediated by nicotinic receptors has been associated to a large number of physiological and behavioral processes such as learning, memory, attention, food-intake and mood disorders. Although it is well established that many nicotinic actions are mediated through an increase in serotonin (5-HT) release, the physiological mechanisms by which nicotine produces these effects are still unclear. The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) contains the major amount of 5-HT neurons projecting to different parts of the brain. ⋯ We also describe the inhibitory effects of nicotine and the role of 5-HT1A receptors in this effect. These nicotinic actions modulate the activity of different neuronal subpopulations in the DRN, changing the 5-HT tone in the brain areas where these groups of neurons project. Some of the physiological implications of nicotine-induced 5-HT release are discussed.
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In recent years, researchers have embarked on a search of computer-aided methods for diagnosis of the Alzheimer's disease (AD) to help clinicians make the diagnosis earlier and more accurately such that treatment of the disease can begin sooner when there is a higher chance of success in slowing down the progression of this disease. This article presents a review of journal articles on brain signal- and image-based diagnosis of AD published in the past few years. The areas of signal processing, electroencephalogram and magnetoencephalogram are considered. ⋯ Computer-aided early diagnosis of the AD would be a major breakthrough with a very significant worldwide impact because medications would be able to slow down the progression of the disease. This review shows that this is a very active area in the frontier of brain research, with many multidisciplinary researchers exploring a variety of approaches using various types of brain signals and imaging technologies. The brain signal-based approaches will be able to point toward early onset diagnosis of the AD, but as the disease progresses, a multimodal approach can increase the accuracy of the diagnosis.