Neuroscience
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1H magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has established itself as a key diagnostic technique, affording the visualization of brain anatomy, blood flow, activity and connectivity. The detection of other atoms (e.g. 19F, 23Na, 31P), so called hetero-nuclear MRI and spectroscopy (MRS), provides investigative avenues that complement and extend the richness of information that can be gained from 1H MRI. Especially 19F MRI is increasingly emerging as a multi-nuclear (1H/19F) technique that can be exploited to visualize cell migration and trafficking. ⋯ Further methodological advances that accelerate signal acquisition (e.g. compressed sensing, cryogenic coils) are required to expand the applications of 19F MR imaging to, for instance, determine the regional pharmacokinetics of novel fluorine-based drugs. Improvements in 19F signal detection and localization, combined with the development of novel sensitive probes, will increase the utility of these multi-nuclear studies. These advances will provide new insights into cellular and molecular processes involved in neurodegenerative disease, as well as the mode of action of pharmaceutical compounds.
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The history of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is closely linked to our improved understanding of memory systems, be it in normal functioning or altered due to pathologies. Over the years, brain imaging using MRI has moved from simple volumetric imaging to complex analysis using multiple sequences, allowing the measurement of microstructural integrity and brain activation through a dedicated task or at rest. This review aims at showing how the advent and evolution of magnetic resonance imaging has shaped a better understanding of memory and brain function in humans. We will give a brief overview on the history of MRI, how its evolution brought about concomitant improvement in our understanding of memory systems, going from final-stage observation to risk-prediction via the detection of subtle, but important, alterations in normal brain functioning.
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The role of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the mechanisms of learning and memory, modulation of synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain has not received sufficient attention. These issues are discussed in this review, and among the many cytokines, attention is paid to the most studied in this respect IL-10, IL-4, IL-13 and TGF-β. The level of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the brain tends to increase during memory acquisition, but the significance of such an increase is unclear. ⋯ It has also been shown that TGF-β is able to optimize late stage LTP in the hippocampus and support the consolidation of memory traces in behavioral studies. Cytokines have an effect on learning and memory through their influence on neuroplasticity, neurogenesis in the hippocampus and regulation of the neurovascular unit. Experiments have shown such an effect, and the data obtained create the prerequisites for new therapeutic approaches to the correction of cognitive impairments.